Spectral Hardening Reveals Afterglow Emergence in Long-duration Fast X-Ray Transients: A Case Study of GRB 250404A/EP250404a

Abstract

The prompt emission and afterglow phases of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) have been extensively studied, yet the transition between these two phases remains inadequately characterized due to limited multiwavelength observational coverage. Among the recent growing samples of fast X-ray transients observed by Einstein Probe (EP), a subgroup of GRBs are captured with long-duration X-ray emission, potentially containing featured evolution from prompt emission to the afterglow phase. In this Letter, we present a detailed analysis of GRB 250404A/EP250404a, a bright, fast X-ray transient detected simultaneously by EP and the Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor in X-rays and gamma rays. Its continuous X-ray emission reveals a long-duration tail, accompanied by distinct spectral evolution manifested by the spectral index α _X with an initial softening, followed by an evident hardening, eventually reaching a plateau at the value of ∼–2. Early optical and near-infrared observations enable broadband modeling with forward- and reverse-shock components, confirming that the X-ray hardening signals the emergence of the external-shock afterglow. From this spectral hardening, we infer that the prompt phase in soft X-rays lasted ∼300 s, which is more than 3 times longer than the gamma-ray T _90 . This well-tracked soft–hard–flat spectral pattern provides a clear indication of afterglow emergence from the fading prompt emission and offers a practical criterion for identifying a distinct population of GRBs among fast X-ray transients, even when the detection of the gamma-ray counterpart or obvious temporal break is absent.

Keywords

• Transient sources
• High energy astrophysics
• X-ray transient sources
• Gamma-ray bursts