Toxicology Reports (Dec 2024)
Toxicological and environmental risks of enalapril and their possible transformation products generated under phototransformation reactions
Abstract
Pharmaceutical active compounds (PACs) in the concentration range of hundreds of ng/L to μg/L have been identified in urban surface water, groundwater, and agricultural land where they cause various health risks. These pollutants are classified as emerging and cannot be efficiently removed by conventional wastewater treatment processes. The use of nano-enabled photocatalysts in the removal of pharmaceuticals in aquatic systems has recently received research attention owing to their enhanced properties and effectiveness. In the current study, toxicological and environmental risks of enalapril (ENL) and their possible transformation products (TPs) generated under phototransformation processes (e.g., photolysis and photocatalysis reactions) were assessed. In photolysis reaction, removal of ENL was incomplete (< 16 %), while mineralization degree was negligible. In contrast, total removal of ENL was achieved through the photocatalytic process and its maximum mineralization ratio was 66 % by using natural radiation. Proposed transformation pathways during the phototransformation of ENL include hydroxylation and fragmentation reactions generating transformation products (TPs) such as hydroxylated TPs (m/z 393) and enalaprilat (m/z 349). Potential environmental risks for aquatic organisms were not observed in the concentrations of both ENL and enalaprilat contained in surface water. However, the acute and chronic toxicities prediction of TPs such as m/z 409, 363, and 345 showed toxic effects on aquatic organisms. Thus, more studies regarding TPs monitoring for both ENL and PhACs with the highest occurrence worldwide are necessary for the creation of a database of the concentrations contained in surface water and groundwater for the assessment of the potential environmental risk for aquatic organisms.
