Arm waving in stylophoran echinoderms: three-dimensional mobility analysis illuminates cornute locomotion

Abstract

The locomotion strategies of fossil invertebrates are typically interpreted on the basis of morphological descriptions. However, it has been shown that homologous structures with disparate morphologies in extant invertebrates do not necessarily correlate with differences in their locomotory capability. Here, we present a new methodology for analysing locomotion in fossil invertebrates with a rigid skeleton through an investigation of a cornute stylophoran, an extinct fossil echinoderm with enigmatic morphology that has made its mode of locomotion difficult to reconstruct. We determined the range of motion of a stylophoran arm based on digitized three-dimensional morphology of an early Ordovician form, Phyllocystis crassimarginata. Our analysis showed that efficient arm-forward epifaunal locomotion based on dorsoventral movements, as previously hypothesized for cornute stylophorans, was not possible for this taxon; locomotion driven primarily by lateral movement of the proximal aulacophore was more likely. Three-dimensional digital modelling provides an objective and rigorous methodology for illuminating the movement capabilities and locomotion strategies of fossil invertebrates.

Keywords

• echinoderm
• stylophora
• aulacophore
• three-dimensional digital modelling
• range of motion