Noroviruses: Evolutionary Dynamics, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Vaccine Advances—A Comprehensive Review
Cornelius Arome Omatola,
Philip Paul Mshelbwala,
Martin-Luther Oseni Okolo,
Anyebe Bernard Onoja,
Joseph Oyiguh Abraham,
David Moses Adaji,
Sunday Ocholi Samson,
Therisa Ojomideju Okeme,
Ruth Foluke Aminu,
Monday Eneojo Akor,
Gideon Ayeni,
Danjuma Muhammed,
Phoebe Queen Akoh,
Danjuma Salisu Ibrahim,
Emmanuel Edegbo,
Lamidi Yusuf,
Helen Ojomachenwu Ocean,
Sumaila Ndah Akpala,
Oiza Aishat Musa,
Andrew Musa Adamu
Affiliations
Cornelius Arome Omatola
Department of Microbiology, Kogi State University, Anyigba 272102, Kogi State, Nigeria
Philip Paul Mshelbwala
Department of Primary Industries, Orange 2800, NSW, Australia
Martin-Luther Oseni Okolo
Department of Microbiology, Kogi State University, Anyigba 272102, Kogi State, Nigeria
Anyebe Bernard Onoja
Department of Virology, University College Hospital, Ibadan 211101, Oyo State, Nigeria
Joseph Oyiguh Abraham
Department of Microbiology, Kogi State University, Anyigba 272102, Kogi State, Nigeria
David Moses Adaji
Department of Biotechnology Science and Engineering, University of Alabama, Huntsville, AL 35899, USA
Sunday Ocholi Samson
Department of Molecular Biology, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 29, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
Therisa Ojomideju Okeme
Department of Biological Sciences, Federal University Lokoja, Lokoja 260101, Kogi State, Nigeria
Ruth Foluke Aminu
Department of Microbiology, Kogi State University, Anyigba 272102, Kogi State, Nigeria
Monday Eneojo Akor
Department of Microbiology, Kogi State University, Anyigba 272102, Kogi State, Nigeria
Gideon Ayeni
Department of Biochemistry, Kogi State University, Anyigba 272102, Kogi State, Nigeria
Danjuma Muhammed
Epidemiology and Public Health Unit, Department of Biology, Universiti Putra, Seri Kembangan 43300, Malaysia
Phoebe Queen Akoh
Department of Microbiology, Kogi State University, Anyigba 272102, Kogi State, Nigeria
Danjuma Salisu Ibrahim
Department of Microbiology, Federal University Oye, Oye 371101, Ekiti State, Nigeria
Emmanuel Edegbo
Department of Microbiology, Kogi State University, Anyigba 272102, Kogi State, Nigeria
Lamidi Yusuf
Department of Microbiology, Kogi State University, Anyigba 272102, Kogi State, Nigeria
Helen Ojomachenwu Ocean
Department of Microbiology, Salem University, Lokoja 260101, Kogi State, Nigeria
Sumaila Ndah Akpala
Department of Microbiology, Kogi State University, Anyigba 272102, Kogi State, Nigeria
Oiza Aishat Musa
Department of Microbiology, Kogi State University, Anyigba 272102, Kogi State, Nigeria
Andrew Musa Adamu
Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Townsville 4811, QLD, Australia
Noroviruses constitute a significant aetiology of sporadic and epidemic gastroenteritis in human hosts worldwide, especially among young children, the elderly, and immunocompromised patients. The low infectious dose of the virus, protracted shedding in faeces, and the ability to persist in the environment promote viral transmission in different socioeconomic settings. Considering the substantial disease burden across healthcare and community settings and the difficulty in controlling the disease, we review aspects related to current knowledge about norovirus biology, mechanisms driving the evolutionary trends, epidemiology and molecular diversity, pathogenic mechanism, and immunity to viral infection. Additionally, we discuss the reservoir hosts, intra–inter host dynamics, and potential eco-evolutionary significance. Finally, we review norovirus vaccines in the development pipeline and further discuss the various host and pathogen factors that may complicate vaccine development.
