Metagenomic and metabolomic analysis showing the adverse risk–benefit trade-off of the ketogenic diet

Abstract

Abstract Background Ketogenic diets are increasingly popular for addressing obesity, but their impacts on the gut microbiota and metabolome remain unclear. This paper aimed to investigate how a ketogenic diet affects intestinal microorganisms and metabolites in obesity. Methods Male mice were provided with one of the following dietary regimens: normal chow, high-fat diet, ketogenic diet, or high-fat diet converted to ketogenic diet. Body weight and fat mass were measured weekly using high-precision electronic balances and minispec body composition analyzers. Metagenomics and non-targeted metabolomics data were used to analyze differences in intestinal contents. Results Obese mice on the ketogenic diet exhibited notable improvements in weight and body fat. However, these were accompanied by a significant decrease in intestinal microbial diversity, as well as an increase in Firmicutes abundance and a 247% increase in the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio. The ketogenic diet also altered multiple metabolic pathways in the gut, including glucose, lipid, energy, carbohydrate, amino acid, ketone body, butanoate, and methane pathways, as well as bacterial secretion and colonization pathways. These changes were associated with increased intestinal inflammation and dysbiosis in obese mice. Furthermore, the ketogenic diet enhanced the secretion of bile and the synthesis of aminoglycoside antibiotics in obese mice, which may impair the gut microbiota and be associated with intestinal inflammation and immunity. Conclusions The study suggest that the ketogenic diet had an unfavorable risk–benefit trade-off and may compromise metabolic homeostasis in obese mice.

Keywords

• Obesity
• Ketogenic diet
• High-fat diet
• Gut microbiota
• Metagenome
• Metabolome