In vitro study of the ecotoxicological risk of methylisothiazolinone and chloroxylenol towards soil bacteria

Abstract

Abstract Methylisothiazolinone (MIT) and chloroxylenol (PCMX) are popular disinfectants often used in personal care products (PCPs). The unregulated discharge of these micropollutants into the environment, as well as the use of sewage sludge as fertilizer and reclaimed water in agriculture, poses a serious threat to ecosystems. However, research into their ecotoxicity towards nontarget organisms is very limited. In the present study, for the first time, the ecotoxicity of biocides to Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas moorei, Sphingomonas mali, and Bacillus subtilis was examined. The toxicity of MIT and PCMX was evaluated using the microdilution method, and their influence on the viability of bacterial cells was investigated by the AlamarBlue® test. The ability of the tested bacteria to form biofilms was examined by a microtiter plate assay. Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production was measured with CM-H2DCFDA. The effect of MIT and PCMX on phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) production was determined by spectrophotometry and LC‒MS/MS techniques. The permeability of bacterial cell membranes was studied using the SYTOX Green assay. Changes in the phospholipid profile were analysed using LC‒MS/MS. The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) values ranged from 3.907 to 15.625 mg L−1 for MIT and 62.5 to 250 mg L−1 for PCMX, indicating that MIT was more toxic. With increasing concentrations of MIT and PCMX, the cell viability, biofilm formation ability and phytohormone synthesis were maximally inhibited. Moreover, the growth of bacterial cell membrane permeability and a significantly increased content of ROS were observed, indicating that the exposure caused serious oxidative stress and homeostasis disorders. Additionally, modifications in the phospholipid profile were observed in response to the presence of sublethal concentrations of the chemicals. These results prove that the environmental threat posed by MIT and PCMX must be carefully monitored, especially as their use in PCPs is still growing.