A Careful Insight into DDI-Type Receptor Layers on the Way to Improvement of Click-Biology-Based Immunosensors

Abstract

Protein-based microarrays are important tools for high-throughput medical diagnostics, offering versatile platforms for multiplex immunodetection. However, challenges arise in protein microarrays due to the heterogeneous nature of proteins and, thus, differences in their immobilization conditions. This article advocates DNA-directed immobilization (DDI) as a solution, emphasizing its rapid and cost-effective fabrication of biosensing platforms. Thiolated single-stranded DNA and its analogues, such as ZNA® and PNA probes, were used to immobilize model proteins (anti-CRP antibodies and SARS-CoV nucleoprotein). The study explores factors influencing DDI-based immunosensor performance, including the purity of protein-DNA conjugates and the stability of their duplexes with DNA and analogues. It also provides insight into backfilling agent type and probe surface density. The research reveals that single-component monolayers lack protection against protein adsorption, while mixing the probes with long-chain ligands may hinder DNA-protein conjugate anchoring. Conventional DNA probes offer slightly higher surface density, while ZNA® probes exhibit better binding efficiency. Despite no enhanced stability in different ionic strength media, the cost-effectiveness of DNA probes led to their preference. The findings contribute to advancing microarray technology, paving the way for new generations of DDI-based multiplex platforms for rapid and robust diagnostics.

Keywords

• DNA-directed immobilization
• DNA-protein conjugates
• self-assembled monolayers
• surface plasmon resonance
• conjugates purification
• receptor layer formation