پژوهش های تاریخی (Mar 2024)
Genealogy of the Arab tribes living in Syria during the Caliphate of Imam Ali (AS)Typology of the Arab Tribes Living in the Levant during the Caliphate of Imam Ali (AS) Typology of the Arab Tribes Living in the Levant During the Caliphate of Imam Ali (A.S.).
Abstract
Abstract Muawiya, who proclaimed himself the avenger of Uthman, established the Levant (Bilad al-Sham) as the base for his political agenda. This allowed the Levant to emerge as the stronghold of opposition against the caliphate of Imam Ali (AS), paving the way for the rise of the Umayyad dynasty. However, historical accounts suggest that the cohesiveness of the Levantine community during this period may not have been as absolute as commonly portrayed. This research, employing a descriptive-analytical approach, examined the composition of the Levantine population and their positions in the Alavi-Umayyad dispute. By focusing on the division of tribes into the Qahtani and Adnani groups, the study categorized the behavior of the Levantine people into 4 distinct groups: companions, semi-companions, neutrals, and non-companions. One of the key findings was identification of groups that were either not obedient to Muawiya from the outset or later separated from him, despite the initial companionship. This challenged the prevalent narrative of a unified and unwavering Levantine support for Muawiya's cause. This categorization could aid in analyzing the nuanced performance of the Levantine population and reconciling the scattered and conflicting historical accounts. Moreover, the research revealed that in all the mentioned groups, the Qahtani tribes were dominant, shedding light on the internal dynamics and power structures within the Levantine community during this pivotal period of Islamic history. These insights can contribute to further research on Muawiya's policies, the Alavi-Umayyad conflict, and the sociopolitical landscape of the Levant. Keywords: Imam Ali (AS), Typology, Levant/Sham Tribes, Qahtanians, Adnanians, Muawiya. Introduction Historical accounts have often portrayed the Levantine population as exhibiting a remarkable cohesion and unwavering political and intellectual unity in their support for Muawiya's cause. However, a closer examination of the available historical propositions suggests that the reality may have been more nuanced and complex. In this research, we undertook a systematic analysis of the Levantine community by first identifying a sample of 80 Arab tribes residing in the region. We then investigated the ancestral origins of these tribes, categorizing them as either Qahtani or Adnani. Subsequently, we focused on the behavioral patterns of the tribes and their degrees of allegiance or opposition to Muawiya, comparing the groups within the same geographical area while paying attention to the variations in their functions, conducts, and compositions. Through this approach, we classified the Levantine population into 4 distinct groups: "companions", "semi-companions", "neutrals", and "non-companions". The primary aim of this research was to critically examine the historical narratives regarding the demographics and tribal affiliations of the Levant, as well as to shed light on the diverse responses and loyalties exhibited by the local population in their dealings with Muawiya. By delving into the intricate sociopolitical dynamics within the Levantine community, this study challenged the prevailing perception of a monolithic and cohesive Levantine support for Muawiya's ascendancy. Instead, it unveiled a more nuanced and heterogeneous landscape, where the Levantine tribes displayed a range of responses, from unwavering loyalty to outright opposition and from conditional cooperation to complete neutrality. The findings of this research can contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the Alavi-Umayyad conflict, Muawiya's policies, and the complex sociopolitical landscape of the Levant during this pivotal period of Islamic history. Materials & Methods This study utilized a typological approach to analyze the classification and behaviors of Arab tribes inhabiting the Levant during the period surrounding the life of Imam Ali (AS) and the conflict with Mu'awiyah. Data Sources: The primary data sources for this analysis were historical accounts and chronicles documenting the events and interactions of the various Arab tribes in the Levant during this time period. Tribal Identification: Through a comprehensive review of the available historical records, the researchers identified a total of 80 Arab tribes residing in the Levant region. These tribes were then classified into 4 distinct categories: Companions, Semi-Companions, Neutrals, and Non-Companions. Behavioral Analysis: To differentiate the tribes into these categories, the researchers closely examined the verbal and practical behaviors exhibited by the individuals and tribes. This included their levels of participation or abstention from the conflict, their public statements and positions, as well as any documented actions or alliances. Genealogical Consideration: In addition to the behavioral analysis, the researchers also investigated the genealogical origins of the tribes, distinguishing between the Qahtani and Adnani lineages. This allowed for an assessment of any correlations between tribal ancestry and their respective roles and allegiances. Statistical Analysis: The relative sizes and numerical strengths of the four identified tribal groupings were quantified and analyzed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the social and political dynamics at play within the Levantine community during this historical period. By employing this multifaceted methodological approach, the researchers were able to develop a detailed typology of the Arab tribes in the Levant and contextualize their roles and influences within the broader historical narrative surrounding Imam Ali (AS) and the conflict with Mu'awiyah. Research Findings The Junds (Military Districts) of the Levant Settlement of Arab tribes in the cities of the Levant was organized along a distinct tribal structure with specific areas designated to each tribe. Unlike the Iraqi region, these military settlements and tribal territories were known as Junds (armies). a) Homs Jund: The population of this city was entirely composed of Yemeni (Qahtani) tribes. b) Damascus Jund: The inhabitants of this region were predominantly Yemeni (Qahtani) tribes with Damascus as the center of the Levant, hosting the largest concentration of Qahtanis alongside a minority of Qaisians (Adnanis). c) Ordan Jund: Except for the Tabariyya region, which was home to the Ash'aris, the rest of the Jordanian territory was inhabited by a mix of Qahtani tribes. d) Palestine Jund: This region had a mixed population of Arabs and non-Arabs (Ajams). The Qahtani tribes were generally concentrated in the southern parts of the Levant, while the northern regions had a smaller population of Adnani Arabs and no presence of the Muzarians. Certain tribes were so numerous that they were considered the dominant groups known as Batn in Arabic. For instance, the Kalb tribe, which was the leader of the Yemeni (Qahtani) tribes, was regarded as the exemplar of the Qahtanis, while the Qays tribe represented the Adnanis. Another example was the Tayy tribe, the residents of central Levant whose rapid expansion was so significant that Syriac authors used the term "Tayy" as a synonym for "Arab". Statistical Breakdown of Tribes in the Levant In the pre-Islamic era, the Arab tribes were broadly divided into two main groups: the Adnanis and the Qahtanis. The Adnanis, tracing their ancestry to Adnan, Mudar, Nizar, or Muzar (the 20th to 17th ancestors of the Prophet), were the northern Arabs, who inhabited the central regions of the Arabian Peninsula, primarily Hijaz and Najd. The other group known as the Qahtanis included the southern Arabs believed by genealogists to be the descendants of Sam bin Noah through Ya'rib bin Qahtan. Their settlements were concentrated in Yemen, Hadramawt, Oman, and the surrounding areas, earning them the designation of "Yemenis". In the pre-Islamic period, the Qahtani tribes were the dominant presence in the Levant. As the Islamic conquests unfolded, the initial troops sent to the Levant were primarily from the Nizari tribes. However, the second Caliph, Abu Bakr, also directed the deployment of Yemeni (Qahtani) forces to the region. This influx of Arab tribes drawn by the promise of spoils and the wealth of the Levant led to a significant increase in the Arab population in the area. This shift in the demographic composition of the Levant was evident from the tribal makeup of Muawiya's army at the Battle of Siffin. For every 15 Yemeni (Qahtani) tribes, there were only 4 tribes of the Qays (Adnanis) present. This Yemeni contingent estimated by the historian Hisham ibn al-Kalbi to number around 2,500 individuals sought to establish a permanent presence in the Levant. Muawiya, recognizing the strategic importance of this population, gathered approximately 80,000 men of these Arab tribesmen to fight alongside him against Imam Ali (AS). 2.1 Companion Groups This group encompassed the tribes and clans that were already residing in the Levant prior to the advent of Islam and did not have counterparts in the Iraqi army. These tribes were present at the Battle of Siffin and sided with Muawiyah for various reasons, thus being classified as the "companion group". The Levant served as a base for the Umayyads from the outset. The Quraysh tribe, particularly the Banu Umayyah clan led by Muawiyah, was firmly entrenched in the region. Muawiyah refused to acknowledge Imam Ali's caliphate and resorted to all manner of stratagems to establish his rule over the Levant. Among the other tribes that supported Muawiyah were the ancient Levantine tribes, which were described as "sinister" in a narration attributed to Ibn Abbas. Muawiyah's supporters sought to sow division and discord within Imam Ali's army by any means possible. In one report, a man from the Abbas tribe brought news of the alleged slaughter of 60,000 elderly Levantine men to the Iraqi army in an effort to create anxiety and shake the resolve of Imam Ali's forces. Imam Ali cursed the man and stated that he would not have spared the man's life if killing the messenger had been permissible. Other examples of Muawiyah's staunch supporters included the 'Akk and Ash'ar tribes, whom Muawiyah referred to as the "lions of the Levant". These tribes swore allegiance to the death, vowing never to retreat. It is worth noting that some tribes, such as the Quza'a, were motivated by the prospect of material rewards and financial gains. The leader of the Quza'a tribe, Nu'man bin Jabla, did not wish to confront Imam Ali but was threatened by Muawiyah with deposition if he withdrew from the war. Nu'man, however, made his and his tribe's support conditional on receiving compensation. Historical sources have attempted to compile lists of the tribes that were fully aligned with Muawiyah at the Battle of Siffin. Al-Akhbar al-Tawil mentioned 31 tribes, while Waq'at Siffin listed 27 tribes. Al-Imamah wa'l-Siyasah divided Muawiyah's companions into 6 groups, ranging from 3,000 to 80,000 individuals, while Muruj al-Dhahab put the total number of Muawiyah's companions at 85,000. After removing any duplicates, the total number of tribes in the companion group reached 61. Additionally, the historian Dasuqi, in his work "Al-Qabail al-'Arabiyyah", mentioned approximately 83,000 Levantine Arabs participating in the Battle of Siffin and categorized them into 27 groups. It is noteworthy that although the majority of the companion tribes were Qahtanis, the command and leadership were in the hands of the Adnanis. 2.2 Semi-Companion Groups This category included tribes where the majority of their members were in the service of Muawiyah, but certain factions among them were sympathetic to Imam Ali (AS) and distanced themselves from the pro-Levantine line. In other words, some individuals initially accompanied Muawiyah out of ignorance, but upon learning more about the events, continued to outwardly support him while actually acting in favor of Imam Ali (AS). Some of them inquired about the Imam's status and even relayed news from the Levant to Kufa to strengthen Imam Ali's army. Others switched sides due to pragmatic considerations, rivalry, or prejudice and some were even assassinated as a result. One example of this semi-companion group was Muawiyah bin Dahhak. Although he served as the flag-bearer of the Banu Sulaym tribe in Muawiyah's army, he was actually at odds with the Levantine forces and inclined towards the Iraqis and Imam Ali (AS). Furthermore, he sent news about the situation in the Levant to Imam Ali (AS) and even composed a poem that denounced the Levantine supporters and Muawiyah, while extolling the bravery of Imam Ali (AS). This led to his eventual exile. These examples demonstrated that not all the members of the tribes mentioned held the same political views in supporting Muawiyah and there was a division of opinion within the Levant similar to the situation in Kufa. 2.3 The Impartial and Neutral Group This group comprised individuals and tribes who, based on their circumstances, chose to remain neutral and not participate in the Battle of Siffin. It also included those who were inclined to support Imam Ali (AS), but due to the conditions imposed by the Banu Umayyad in the Levant, preferred to avoid jeopardizing their own position. Additionally, there were opportunistic groups, who adopted a policy of neutrality, so that they could conveniently align with either Mu'awiyah or Imam Ali (AS) depending on the expediency of the time. Among this spectrum were also some ascetics from the Levant, who withdrew from the conflict between Kufa and the Levant and did not take part in the Battle of Siffin. One example was the Himyar tribe, who were present on the Levant front. However, an individual from this tribe named Hasin bin Malik was sympathetic towards Imam Ali (AS) and followed his affairs. Hasin considered turning away from Mu'awiyah as a disgrace and siding with him as akin to fire, thus opting for neutrality. 2.4 The Non-Companion Groups This category included tribes and clans who, despite being residents of the Levant, completely abstained from the battle or were counted among the opponents of Mu'awiyah during that period. The conduct of these tribes in the Umayyad-controlled Levant and the climate of oppression that prevailed after the murder of Uthman was highly significant. In the analysis of historical accounts, only the names of three tribes - Hamdan, Rabi'ah, and 'Amalah - were mentioned as refusing to accompany Mu'awiyah in the Battle of Siffin. Regarding the Hamdan tribe, it should be noted that they were among the forces that had conquered the Levant. Although a large number of them had migrated there before the advent of Islam, none of them joined Mu'awiyah's army. In addition to their absence from Mu'awiyah's forces, they also openly expressed their opposition within the Levant itself. Another non-companion tribe was the 'Amalah, a people of Jabal 'Amel, who lived in the regions of Sur and Sidon and were known as the Shi'ites of Imam Ali (AS) due to the influence of Abu Dhar. Abu Dhar's activities in the Levantine areas, including Jabal 'Amel, had enlightened and separated many people from the Levantine line. The third tribe that did not appear in Mu'awiyah's army was Rabi'ah al-Sham. The Rabi'ah tribe rebelled against Mu'awiyah. This could be evidenced from the Battle of Siffin, where it was mentioned that Mu'awiyah harbored such resentment towards the Rabi'ah and was so enraged with them that he swore to take their women captive and kill their warriors in case of victory. Therefore, the Rabi'ah al-Sham, like the Hamdan and 'Amalah tribes, refused to accompany Mu'awiyah. Discussion of Results & Conclusion One of the essential elements in historical studies and even in understanding certain religious propositions is the knowledge of how people and currents are classified. The tool for this important task is "Typology". It can be said that without such statistical data, in-depth historical analyses would be unavailable. In the analysis of Imam Ali's life, the division among the Kufans was a well-known fact, while the complete unity of the Levantines was considered an accepted reality. However, in the analysis of the eighty Arab tribes inhabiting the Levant, a more nuanced picture emerged through a review of individual and tribal behaviors and functions. 4 distinct currents were identified: "Companions", "Semi-Companions", "Neutrals", and "Non-Companions". The "Companion" group was the largest, while the "Non-Companion" group, comprising only three tribes, had the smallest statistical population. Another noteworthy finding was that although the majority of the tribes were of Qahtani genealogy, the Adnanians were in charge of command and leadership. Despite being a minority, the Adnanians had relatively stronger support for Mu'awiyah. In the study of the Levantine community and differentiation of these groups, the behavioral examples of each type, both verbal and practical, were considered as criteria, resulting in a comprehensive report. The detailed analysis of these typologies and their respective roles in the historical events surrounding Imam Ali (AS) and the conflict with Mu'awiyah provided valuable insights into the complex social and political dynamics of that period.
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