Global synthesis reveals that ecosystem degradation poses the primary threat to the world's medicinal animals

Abstract

Although overexploitation threatens some high-profile medicinal animals, little is known about global patterns in the use of - and threats to - medicinal animals. We examined data from the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List and a literature survey to identify a diverse catalog of medicinal animals (n = 1660). Most known species (~77%) are chordates in terrestrial habitats (~72%). Intensity of use generally maps to biodiverse regions with low human development. Most (~63%) species are decreasing, and primary threats relate to habitat loss and modification. Many (~62%) species have multiple uses, which is associated with higher endangerment and threats from exploitation than species used solely for medicine. Spiritual use medicinal species have a higher proportion of "at-risk" species (~19%) than those used otherwise (~6%), potentially owing to associations among rarity, perceived efficacy, and demand. These findings can inform spatially and taxonomically explicit biocultural strategies to safeguard not only biodiversity but also important human-animal relationships.

Keywords

• animals
• conservation
• endangerment
• ethnomedicine
• ethnozoology
• global
• medicine
• threats