Indirect Voltammetry Detection of Non-Electroactive Neurotransmitters Using Glassy Carbon Microelectrodes: The Case of Glutamate
Sandra Lara Galindo,
Surabhi Nimbalkar,
Alexis Oyawale,
James Bunnell,
Omar Nunez Cuacuas,
Rhea Montgomery-Walsh,
Amish Rohatgi,
Brinda Kodira Cariappa,
Abhivyakti Gautam,
Kevin Peguero-Garcia,
Juyeon Lee,
Stephanie Ingemann Bisgaard,
Carter Faucher,
Stephan Sylvest Keller,
Sam Kassegne
Affiliations
Sandra Lara Galindo
NanoFAB.SDSU Research Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-1323, USA
Surabhi Nimbalkar
NanoFAB.SDSU Research Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-1323, USA
Alexis Oyawale
NanoFAB.SDSU Research Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-1323, USA
James Bunnell
NanoFAB.SDSU Research Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-1323, USA
Omar Nunez Cuacuas
NanoFAB.SDSU Research Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-1323, USA
Rhea Montgomery-Walsh
NanoFAB.SDSU Research Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-1323, USA
Amish Rohatgi
NanoFAB.SDSU Research Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-1323, USA
Brinda Kodira Cariappa
NanoFAB.SDSU Research Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-1323, USA
Abhivyakti Gautam
NanoFAB.SDSU Research Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-1323, USA
Kevin Peguero-Garcia
NanoFAB.SDSU Research Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-1323, USA
Juyeon Lee
NanoFAB.SDSU Research Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-1323, USA
Stephanie Ingemann Bisgaard
National Centre for Nano Fabrication and Characterization, DTU Nanolab, Technical University of Denmark, Ørsteds Plads, Building 347, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
Carter Faucher
NanoFAB.SDSU Research Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-1323, USA
Stephan Sylvest Keller
National Centre for Nano Fabrication and Characterization, DTU Nanolab, Technical University of Denmark, Ørsteds Plads, Building 347, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
Sam Kassegne
NanoFAB.SDSU Research Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-1323, USA
Glassy carbon (GC) microelectrodes have been successfully used for the detection of electroactive neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin through voltammetry. However, non-electroactive neurotransmitters such as glutamate, lactate, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are inherently unsuitable for detection through voltammetry techniques without functionalizing the surface of the microelectrodes. To this end, we present here the immobilization of the L-glutamate oxidase (GluOx) enzyme on the surface of GC microelectrodes to enable the catalysis of a chemical reaction between L-glutamate, oxygen, and water to produce H2O2, an electroactive byproduct that is readily detectable through voltammetry. This immobilization of GluOx on the surface of bare GC microelectrodes and the subsequent catalytic reduction in H2O2 through fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) helped demonstrate the indirect in vitro detection of glutamate, a non-electroactive molecule, at concentrations as low as 10 nM. The functionalized microelectrodes formed part of a four-channel array of microelectrodes (30 μm × 60 μm) on a 1.6 cm long neural probe that was supported on a flexible polymer, with potential for in vivo applications. The types and strengths of the bond between the GC microelectrode surface and its functional groups, on one hand, and glutamate and the immobilized functionalization matrix, on the other hand, were investigated through molecular dynamic (MD) modeling and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Both MD modeling and FTIR demonstrated the presence of several covalent bonds in the form of C-O (carbon–oxygen polar covalent bond), C=O (carbonyl), C-H (alkenyl), N-H (hydrogen bond), C-N (carbon–nitrogen single bond), and C≡N (triple carbon–nitrogen bond). Further, penetration tests on an agarose hydrogel model confirmed that the probes are mechanically robust, with their penetrating forces being much lower than the fracture force of the probe material.
