The calcitic test growth rate of <i>Spirillina vivipara</i> (Foraminifera)

Abstract

Foraminifera encompass vastly differing morphologies, ecological preferences, and elemental/isotopic test compositions. The calcification mechanism is completely unknown for some wall-type taxa and might be different from that of well-studied groups. This study aims to understand the test growth and determine the calcification rate of Spirillina vivipara Ehrenberg, 1843 (order Spirillinida) and to compare them to other foraminiferal species. Spirillinids have a closely coiled spiral chamber like a tube, yet their calcitic microstructure is unique amongst foraminifera. Calcification observations in S. vivipara facilitate the estimation of carbonate precipitation rates during active test growth, which are revealed to be independent of the individual's size. Spirillina vivipara grows its test in response to food availability, suggesting that calcification directly corresponds to cell growth. Time-lapse observations of S. vivipara indicate continuous growth, suggesting active growth phases interspersed with resting periods, hinting at potential biological rhythms in the growth and calcification process. We also implemented a 24 h observation period using calcein staining, showing calcite precipitation rates of 8.08 µm h−1, which corresponds to approximately 364 nmol cm−2 min−1 (i.e., 36.4 mg cm−2 min−1). These rates are higher than those of other foraminiferal species and those in most inorganic precipitation experiments. Such high rates in spirillinid foraminifera may explain their distinctive morphology, elemental composition, unusual reproduction, and ecological distribution.