Bill Shape Variation in African Penguin (<i>Spheniscus demersus</i>) Held Captive in Two Zoos

Abstract

Penguins, like most birds, are considered monomorphic species. Cloacal endoscopy, laparoscopy, or molecular sex verification are used to determine sex in such animals. Our aim in this study was to investigate whether sex recognition can be performed in penguins by a non-invasive method using the shape of the bill. For this purpose, sex and population differences in penguins were investigated by geometric morphometric methods using photos of the bill in the dorsal and lateral views. Fifty-four African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) were taken for the study. Principal component analysis was applied to reveal the shape variations of the bill. Principal components were extracted for each bill projection. PC1 explained 37.06% of the total variation in the dorsal view, while PC1 for the lateral view explained 31.4% of the total variation. Canonical variance analysis was performed to reveal the differences between groups. The lateral view was more effective in revealing the differences between the groups and between the sexes. For the dorsal view, Procrustes distances values between any group were not statistically significant. The maxillary rostrum in female penguins was higher, while, in males, the mandibular rostrum was higher. The females’ bills were narrower than in males. Centroid size in males was on average larger than in females. Significant differences in bill shape between populations were also found. Using geometric morphometric methods, sex analysis can be conducted with less equipment and less stress on the birds. However, the environmental factors that cause bill variation in birds should be examined in more detail. Better knowledge of the effects of environmental factors on bill variation is important for geometric morphometric methods to give more accurate results in sex and population analyses.

Keywords

• geometric morphometry
• bill variations
• sex differences