مطالعات اجتماعی روان‌شناختی زنان (Mar 2023)

Social Factors Affecting the Mental Health of Women Compared to Men

  • Azam Alizadeh,
  • Parvaneh Danesh,
  • Amir Maleki,
  • Fatemeh Javaheri

DOI
https://doi.org/10.22051/jwsps.2023.38998.2565
Journal volume & issue
Vol. 21, no. 1
pp. 121 – 149

Abstract

Read online

The objective of this study was to identify social factors that affect the mental health of women and men, with gender being one of the distinguishing factors of human health. To achieve this, the study utilized the opinions of Anandal (2013), the theory of Moss (2002), and the theory of Arber and Thomas (2001). The research followed a quantitative approach and was conducted using a survey method. A sample of 600 married men and women aged 20-60 living in Kerman city was selected using quota sampling. The results of the study indicated that men had significantly higher average scores for mental health (23.5) than women (20.6). The average score for "inequality in benefiting from resources and opportunities" was higher for women (73.6) than for men (54.8). In terms of health vulnerability, men had a score of 43 and women had a score of 46, suggesting that women experience weaker mental health, less benefit from resources and opportunities, and a higher degree of health vulnerability compared to men. Statistical analysis showed that "inequality in benefiting from resources and opportunities" with a coefficient of -0.16 and "vulnerability in health" with a coefficient of -0.24 had significant and negative effects on women's mental health. Gender inequalities have a negative impact on women's mental health, both directly and through increased vulnerability to poor health. The findings underscore the need to pay attention to the social conditions in which women live when analyzing their mental health and highlight differences in the social factors that affect the mental health of men and women. ‌ Keywords Gender Difference, Mental Health, Inequality in the Use of Resources and Opportunities, Vulnerability in Health. ‌ ‌Introduction Mental health is an essential component of human health with significant impact on overall well-being. It is shaped by personal characteristics as well as social context, thus making the gender factor, with its cultural, economic, and social implications, a crucial determinant of individuals' mental health. Gender is defined by the distinct identity, roles, expectations, and rights assigned to women and men, and along with their biological differences, creates overarching differences in their individual and social lives. Hence, this research aims to measure gender-based distinctions in mental health in both men and women, and subsequently identify the factors that influence it. This study is necessary in Iran due to the drastic changes in the position of women over the past few decades. Although the entire society has been undergoing constant transformation amidst the traditional and modern boundaries, women have been subjected to more contradictions and disorders in various social life aspects. Factors such as access to higher education, specialized jobs, media consumption, and greater geographical mobility, have gradually reduced the strictness of traditional teachings towards women, hence transforming their position in society, at least partially. Consequently, an important research question arises whether the resulting changes have affected mental health, reducing the gap between men and women's health. Furthermore, to determine if there is a difference in mental health between genders, the study seeks to identify the social factors responsible for these differences. Methodology The research method utilized in this study was a survey, which involved collecting data using both standardized and researcher-made questionnaires. The statistical population of interest was all married individuals between the age of 20 and 60 who reside in Kerman. The sample size was determined using Cochran's formula, and 600 participants were chosen using a combination of the quota sampling and disproportionate sampling methods from two groups of married men and women. The measurement tool showed adequate formal validity, and the study's variables had an optimal level of internal consistency, as indicated by the Cronbach's alpha coefficient. The data were analyzed using SPSS-23 software, and both multiple regression analysis and path analysis were employed to examine the theoretical research model. Findings The study found that men had a higher average mental health score compared to women. Additionally, gender differences were observed in the level of "inequality in the use of resources and opportunities", with women experiencing higher levels of inequality than men, as well as being more vulnerable than men. Multiple regression analysis was used to examine the effect of independent variables on the dependent variable, mental health, separately for men and women, revealing that 20% of changes in women's mental health could be explained by the variables of "inequality in the use of resources and opportunities", "vulnerability in health", and income. Notably, the effect of "inequality in the use of resources and opportunities" and "vulnerability in health" on women's mental health was reversed, with their increase leading to a decrease in mental health, while income had a positive and direct effect, leading to an increase in mental health. Meanwhile, 9% of changes in men's mental health were attributed to income, which had a direct positive impact on men's mental health. In contrast, the variables "inequality in the use of resources and opportunities" and "vulnerability in health" had no effect on men's mental health. Path analysis was employed to determine the structure of the model and the direct and indirect effects of the variables, revealing that "inequality in the use of resources and opportunities" led to a decrease in women's mental health, both directly and indirectly through its effect on "vulnerability in health". Meanwhile, "vulnerability in health" had a negative direct effect on women's mental health. Income affected women's mental health directly and indirectly, with higher income leading to a decrease in "vulnerability in health" and "inequality in the use of resources and opportunities", improving women's mental health. Result The results of the current research, in line with the findings of previous studies, show that women experience greater inequality in "utilizing resources and opportunities" compared to men, and the lack of utilization of resources and opportunities increases exposure to hardship and stress. It limits the access to the resources that they need for prevention and care against the disease, as a result, the health of women faces a decrease. On the other hand, since men experience less gender inequality, it is natural that this factor does not show a relationship with their mental health. Also, gender can affect how people are vulnerable to certain health conditions. The health status of women and men is the consequence of how societies give agreed privileges to men in power relations, which can make women more vulnerable than men in the field of health. The results also indicate "vulnerability in health", more women than men, and its negative impact on women's mental health. Consistent with the opinion of mental health sociologists who believe that mental disorders are caused by socio-cultural systems, in this research it was also found that mental health at the individual level is affected by socio-cultural structures including the gender structure in society. This can lead to gender differences in mental health. on the other hand, since health is a multi-dimensional and multi-faceted phenomenon, and for its promotion, along with the effort to modify individual level variables (such as empowering women), it is necessary to modify the social origin of the disease, especially the way of distributing valuable resources and defining gender roles. Today, the predominance of the biological-psychiatry approach and reliance on drug therapy and individual consultations, despite the valuable role they play in reducing the suffering of patients, they are unable to find and solve their problems. Therefore, the concentration of research that is done with a social approach can be a useful starting point to understand the social roots of mental health and start a practical step in the field of policy making in this field. If the society moves in the direction of social equality so that the effects of deprivation and discrimination are reduced in different areas, the members of the society, both men and women, will have better mental health. ‌ References Aghayari Hir, T., Abbaszadeh, M. & Garavand, F. (2016). A study of mental health and the individual and neighborhood factors affecting it (case study: Tehran citizens). Social Development & Welfare Planning, 8(27), 145-187. Ahmadnia, S. (2004). Employment effects on women health. Social Welfare Quarterly, 3(12), 157-180. (In Persian) Aminpour, H. & Zare, H. (2014). Application of psychological tests. Publications: Payam Noor University. (In Persian) Annandale, E. (2013). Gender Theory and Health’ in Cockerham, W. (ed) Medical Sociology on the Move: New Directions in Theory. New York; Springer. Annandale, E. & Hunt, K. (2000). Gender Inequalities In Health. Open University Press Philadelphia, PA 19106, USA. Annandale, E. & Hammarström, A. (2015). Gender inequality in the couple relationship and leisure-based physical exercise. PLoS ONE, 10(7), 333-348. Arber, S. & Thomas, H. (2001). From women’s health to a gender analysis of health. The Blackwel Companion to Medical Sociology Edited by William C. Cockerham. Bird, C. E. & Rieker, P. P. (2008). Gender and Health: The Effects of Constrained Choices and Social Policies. New York. Doosti, L., Arefi, A. & Nazifi, H. (2019). Comparative study of mental health in women and men working in forensic medicine in Lorestan province. Psychological Studies and Educational Sciences, 59(59), 411-423. (In Persian) Elwér, S., Harryson. L., Bolin, M. & Hammarström, A. (2013). Patterns of Gender Equality at Workplaces and Psychological Distress. PLoS ONE, 8(1), e53246. Farvahari, A., Amirzadeh Googhari, S., Borhaninejad, V., Bahramnejad, A. & Negarestani, M. (2022). Assessing the mental health status of the general population of Kerman and the factors affecting it during the Covid-19 pandemic. Journal of Health Research in Community, 8(1), 69-80. (In Persian) Garroosy, S. (2008). Power structure in the families of Kerman. Womens Studies (Sociological & Psychological), 6(2), 7-25. (In Persian) Garroosy, S. & Adinehzadeh, R. (2011). Investigating the relationship between job/family role conflict and social factors: The case of employed women in Kerman. ‌ Journal of Social Sciences, 7(1), 121-139. (In Persian) Giddens, A. (2010). Sociology. Translated by Hasan Chavoshian. Tehran, Ney Publishing. (In Persian) Gross, J. J., Uusberg, H. & Uusberg, A. (2019). Mental illness and well‐being: An affect regulation perspective. World Psychiatry, 18(2), 130-139. Huber, M., Knottnerus, J. A., Green, L., Van Der Horst, H., Jadad, A. R., Kromhout, D., et al. (2011). How should we define health?. doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.d4163. Jalaeipour, H. (2013). Sociology of Iran: Modern society. Tehran, Science Publication, First Edition. (In Persian) Kiely, K. M., Brady, B. & Byles‌, B. (2019). Gender, mental health and ageing. Maturitas, 129(1), 76-80. Klose, M. & Jacobi, F. (2004). Can gender differences in the prevalence of mental disorders be explained by sociodemographic factors?. Womens Mental Health, 7(2), 133-48. ‌Koosheshi, M., Mirzaie, M., Mahmoudian, H. & Almasi, M. (). Investigate the relationship between gender inequality perception and social well-being among Ilam's women. Womens Studies (Sociological & Psychological), 17(3), 7-30. (In Persian) Lachance-Grzela, M. & Bouchard, G. (2010). Why do women do the lion’s share of housework? A decade of research. Sex Roles: Journal of Research, 63(11-12), 767-778. Lahelma, E., Arber, S., Kiveia, K. & Roos, E. (2003). Multiple roles and health among British and Finish women: The influence of Socioeconomic circumstances. Social Science & Medicine, 54(5), 727-740. Liu, S., Yang, L., Hang, C. H., Xu, Y., Ca., L., Ma, S. & Zhang, B. (2021). Gender differences in mental health problems of healthcare workers during the coronavirus disease 2019 outbreak. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 137(2), 393-400. Lund, C., Myer, L., Stein, D. J., Williams, D. R. & Flisher, A. J. (2013). Mental illness and lost income among adult south Africans. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 48(5), 845-851. Malmusi, D., ‌Vive, A., Benac, J. & Borrell, C. (2014). Gender inequalities in health: Exploring the contribution of living conditions in the intersection of social class. Global Health Action, doi: 10.3402/gha.v7.23189. ‌Manwell, L.A., Barbic, S. P., Roberts, K., Durisko, Z., Lee, C., Ware, E., et al. (2015). What is mental health? Evidence towards a new definition from a mixed methods multidisciplinary international survey. BMJ, 5(6), e007079. Medalia, C. (2012). Essays on gender and health. Publicly Accessible Penn. Dissertations. University of Pennsylvania. Doctor of Philosophy. Ph.D. Mohamadnejad, N. & Faraji Dizaji, F. (2019). The poverty and mental health association in Iran. Iranian Economic Review, 23(3), 533-559. Moss N. E. (2002). Gender equity and socioeconomic inequality: A framework for the patterning of women's health. Social Science & Medicine, 54(5), 649-661. Noorbala, A. A., Bagheri, Yazdi, S. A., Faghihzadeh, S., Kamali, K., Faghihzadeh, E., Hajebi, A., Akhondzadeh, S., Sedighnia, A. & Azimi, A. A. (2017). Survey on mental health status of adult population aged 15 and above in the province of Ardebil, Iran. Archives of Iranian Medicine, 20(11), 11–14. Noorbala, A. A. & Noorbala, F. (2014). Investigation of women's mental health in Iran. Preparing and editing. Rahman Institute. Report on the social status of women in Iran (1380-1390). Researches. Tehran, Nei Publishing House, first edition. (In Persian) Research in Gender and Ethics. (2016). From, www.ringsgenderresearch.org. Polachek, A. J. & Wallace, J. E. (2015). Unfair to me or unfair to my spouse: Mens and womens perceptions of domestic equity and how they relate to mental and physical health. Marriage & Family Review, 51(3), 205-228. Pourmohsen, M., Khoshravesh, V., Masjoudi, M., Paksresht, S. & Khayat, S. (2020). Investigating the relationship between social and economic inequality and the health status of employed women. Journal of Health, 11(1), 100-108. (In Persian) Rohlfsen, L. & Kronenfeld, J. J. (2014). Gender differences in functional limitations among middle-aged and older adults: A two-part latent curve analysis of structural, childhood background, and factors. The Journals of Gerontology, 69(4), 590–602. Sen, G. & Östlin, P. (2008). Gender inequity in health: Why it exists and how we can change it. Glob Public Health, 3(1), 1-12. Schön, P. (2011). Differences and Change in Disability and Health Among Our Oldest Women and Men. Stockholm Studies in Social Work University. Sorlin. A. (2011). Health and the elusive gender equality can the impact of gender equality on health be measured?. Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden. Thesis Ph.D. Sorlin, A., Lindholm, L., Ng, N. & Öhman, A. (2011). Gender equality in couples and self-rated health - A survey study evaluating measurements of gender equality and its impact on health. International Journal for Equity in Health‌‌, 26(10), 1-11. Tavakol, T. Moidfar, S. & Maghsudi, S. (2012). Relationship between social capital and mental health of married couples in Kerman. Iranian Journal of Social Problems, 2(1), 169-194. (In Persian) Van de Velde, S., Huijts, T., Bambra, C. & Bracke, P. (2013). Macro-level equality and depression in men and women in Europe. Sociol Health, 35(2), 682–698. WHE. (2014). Women’S Mental Health and Wellbeing.http://whe.org.au/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2014/10. Women’S Health East. WHO. (2008). Promoting Mental Health, A Report of the World Health Organization. White, K. (2012). An introduction to the sociology of health and illness, translated by Mohsen Naserirad. Publication of Shahir Beheshti University of Medical Sciences and Health Services, Medical Ethics and Legal Research Center. (In Persian) World Economic Forum. (2022). Global Gender Gap Report. https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2021.pdf. Zanjani zadeh, H. (2007). The Role of ‌education in gender inequalities inwqualities. Journal of ‌Education, 23(3), 55-70. (In Persian)

Keywords