This paper uses empirical traffic data collected from three locations in Europe and the US to reveal a three-phase fundamental diagram with two phases located in the uncongested regime. Model-based clustering, hypothesis testing and regression analyses are applied to the speed–flow–occupancy relationship represented in the three-dimensional space to rigorously validate the three phases and identify their gaps. The finding is consistent across the aforementioned different geographical locations. Accordingly, we propose a three-phase macroscopic traffic flow model and a characterization of solutions to the Riemann problems. This work identifies critical structures in the fundamental diagram that are typically ignored in first- and higher-order models and could significantly impact travel time estimation on highways.
