Nutritional and Possible Pharmaceutical Aspects of Tree Exudates Eaten by Lemurs of Madagascar’s Dry Forests
Jörg U. Ganzhorn,
Yedidya R. Ratovonamana,
Melina Rother,
Peggy Giertz,
Curswan A. Andrews,
Sabine Baumann,
Yvonne E.-M. B. Bohr,
Peter M. Kappeler,
B. Karina Montero,
Andreas Pommerening-Röser,
Ute Radespiel,
S. Jacques Rakotondranary,
Oliver Schülke,
Kim J. E. Steffens,
Sandra Thorén,
Gabriele Timmermann,
Irene Tomaschewski
Affiliations
Jörg U. Ganzhorn
Institute of Systems Biology of Animals, Animal Ecology and Conservation, Universität Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King Platz 3, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
Yedidya R. Ratovonamana
Institute of Systems Biology of Animals, Animal Ecology and Conservation, Universität Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King Platz 3, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
Melina Rother
Institute of Systems Biology of Animals, Animal Ecology and Conservation, Universität Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King Platz 3, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
Peggy Giertz
Institute of Systems Biology of Animals, Animal Ecology and Conservation, Universität Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King Platz 3, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
Curswan A. Andrews
African Primate Initiative for Ecology & Speciation, Department of Zoology & Entomology, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, South Africa
Sabine Baumann
Institute of Systems Biology of Animals, Animal Ecology and Conservation, Universität Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King Platz 3, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
Yvonne E.-M. B. Bohr
Institute of Systems Biology of Animals, Animal Ecology and Conservation, Universität Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King Platz 3, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
Peter M. Kappeler
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center–Leibnitz Institute of Primatology, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
B. Karina Montero
Institute of Systems Biology of Animals, Animal Ecology and Conservation, Universität Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King Platz 3, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
Andreas Pommerening-Röser
Institute of Plant Science and Microbiology, Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Universität Hamburg, Ohnhorststrasse 18, 22609 Hamburg, Germany
Ute Radespiel
Institute of Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Buenteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany
S. Jacques Rakotondranary
Institute of Systems Biology of Animals, Animal Ecology and Conservation, Universität Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King Platz 3, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
Oliver Schülke
Department for Behavioral Ecology, University of Göttingen, Kellnerweg 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
Kim J. E. Steffens
Institute of Systems Biology of Animals, Animal Ecology and Conservation, Universität Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King Platz 3, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
Sandra Thorén
Institute of Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Buenteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany
Gabriele Timmermann
Institute of Plant Science and Microbiology, Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Universität Hamburg, Ohnhorststrasse 18, 22609 Hamburg, Germany
Irene Tomaschewski
Institute of Systems Biology of Animals, Animal Ecology and Conservation, Universität Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King Platz 3, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
Gums produced by trees after injuries are valuable food resources for several primate species. Yet, information on the chemical characteristics of gum is scant and inconsistent. We use gums consumed by lemurs (strepsirrhine primates of Madagascar) as an example to illustrate their possible nutritive and pharmaceutical properties. Exudates from 45 tree species of the dry forests of Madagascar contained 0.38–23.29% protein, 0.46–65.62% sugar, and 0.39–11.86 kJ/g of energy in dry matter. Exemplified by the lemur species Microcebus griseorufus, gum consumption increased with increasing sugar and energy content but was unrelated to protein. But lemurs also fed on gum with very low protein and energy content, suggesting that these exudates were consumed for other reasons. Disk diffusion tests with exudates from five out of 22 tree species consumed by lemurs showed antibacterial activity against Micrococcus spp. and/or Staphylococcus aureus. Exudates with antibacterial activity had lower protein, sugar, and energy contents than samples without antibacterial properties. GC-MS analyses revealed several components with antimicrobial effects that would have the potential for self-medication. This might explain the consumption of gum with very low nutritive value. Possible medicinal effects of tree exudates deserve further attention in view of their pharmaceutical applicability for animals and humans alike.
