Organic acid cross-linked 3D printed cellulose nanocomposite bioscaffolds with controlled porosity, mechanical strength, and biocompatibility
Andreja Dobaj Štiglic,
Fazilet Gürer,
Florian Lackner,
Doris Bračič,
Armin Winter,
Lidija Gradišnik,
Damjan Makuc,
Rupert Kargl,
Isabel Duarte,
Janez Plavec,
Uros Maver,
Marco Beaumont,
Karin Stana Kleinschek,
Tamilselvan Mohan
Affiliations
Andreja Dobaj Štiglic
University of Maribor, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Laboratory for Characterization and Processing of Polymers, Smetanova Ulica 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
Fazilet Gürer
University of Maribor, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Laboratory for Characterization and Processing of Polymers, Smetanova Ulica 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
Florian Lackner
Graz University of Technology, Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Biobased System (IBioSys), Stremayrgasse 9, 8010 Graz, Austria
Doris Bračič
University of Maribor, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Laboratory for Characterization and Processing of Polymers, Smetanova Ulica 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
Armin Winter
University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU) Institute of Wood Technology and Renewable Materials, Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria
Lidija Gradišnik
University of Maribor, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Taborska Ulica 8, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
Damjan Makuc
Slovenian NMR Center, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Rupert Kargl
University of Maribor, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Laboratory for Characterization and Processing of Polymers, Smetanova Ulica 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia; Graz University of Technology, Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Biobased System (IBioSys), Stremayrgasse 9, 8010 Graz, Austria
Isabel Duarte
University of Aveiro, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Center for Mechanical Technology and Automation, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
Janez Plavec
Slovenian NMR Center, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia; EN→FIST Center of Excellence, Trg OF 13, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Večna pot 113, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Uros Maver
University of Maribor, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Taborska Ulica 8, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
Marco Beaumont
University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Institute of Chemistry of Renewable Resources, Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria
Karin Stana Kleinschek
Graz University of Technology, Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Biobased System (IBioSys), Stremayrgasse 9, 8010 Graz, Austria; Corresponding author
Tamilselvan Mohan
University of Maribor, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Laboratory for Characterization and Processing of Polymers, Smetanova Ulica 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia; Graz University of Technology, Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Biobased System (IBioSys), Stremayrgasse 9, 8010 Graz, Austria; Corresponding author
Summary: Herein, we fabricated chemically cross-linked polysaccharide-based three-dimensional (3D) porous scaffolds using an ink composed of nanofibrillated cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose, and citric acid (CA), featuring strong shear thinning behavior and adequate printability. Scaffolds were produced by combining direct-ink-writing 3D printing, freeze-drying, and dehydrothermal heat-assisted cross-linking techniques. The last step induces a reaction of CA. Degree of cross-linking was controlled by varying the CA concentration (2.5–10.0 wt.%) to tune the structure, swelling, degradation, and surface properties (pores: 100-450 μm, porosity: 86%) of the scaffolds in the dry and hydrated states. Compressive strength, elastic modulus, and shape recovery of the cross-linked scaffolds increased significantly with increasing cross-linker concentration. Cross-linked scaffolds promoted clustered cell adhesion and showed no cytotoxic effects as determined by the viability assay and live/dead staining with human osteoblast cells. The proposed method can be extended to all polysaccharide-based materials to develop cell-friendly scaffolds suitable for tissue engineering applications.
