The Joint Evolution of Herbivory Defense and Mating System in Plants: A Simulation Approach

Abstract

Agricultural losses brought about by insect herbivores can be reduced by understanding the strategies that plants use against insect herbivores. The two main strategies that plants use against herbivory are resistance and tolerance. They are, however, predicted to be mutually exclusive, yet numerous populations have them both (hence a mixed defense strategy). This has been explained, among other alternatives, by the non-linear behavior of the costs and benefits of resistance and tolerance and their interaction with plants’ mating system. Here, we studied how non-linearity and mating system affect the evolutionary stability of mixed defense strategies by means of agent-based model simulations. The simulations work on a novel model that was built upon previous ones. It incorporates resistance and tolerance costs and benefits, inbreeding depression, and a continuously scalable non-linearity. The factors that promoted the evolutionary stability of mixed defense strategies include a multiplicative allocation of costs and benefits of resistance and tolerance, a concave non-linearity, non-heritable selfing, and high tolerance costs. We also found new mechanisms, enabled by the mating system, that are worth considering for empirical studies. One was a double trade-off between resistance and tolerance, predicted as a consequence of costs duplication and the inducibility of tolerance, and the other was named the resistance-cost-of-selfing, a term coined by us, and was derived from the duplication of costs that homozygous individuals conveyed when a single resistance allele provided full protection.

Keywords

• agent-based model simulations
• coevolution
• gene-for-gene model
• herbivory
• inbreeding
• mating system