Staphylococcal β-Toxin Modulates Human Aortic Endothelial Cell and Platelet Function through Sphingomyelinase and Biofilm Ligase Activities

Abstract

ABSTRACT Staphylococcus aureus causes many infections, such as skin and soft tissue, pneumonia, osteomyelitis, and infective endocarditis (IE). IE is an endovascular infection of native and prosthetic valves and the lining of the heart; it is characterized by the formation of cauliflower-like “vegetations” composed of fibrin, platelets, other host factors, bacteria, and bacterial products. β-Toxin is an S. aureus virulence factor that contributes to the microorganism’s ability to cause IE. This cytolysin has two enzymatic activities: sphingomyelinase (SMase) and biofilm ligase. Although both activities have functions in a rabbit model of IE, the mechanism(s) by which β-toxin directly affects human cells and is involved in the infectious process has not been elucidated. Here, we compared the in vitro effects of purified recombinant wild-type β-toxin, SMase-deficient β-toxin (H289N), and biofilm ligase-deficient β-toxin (H162A and/or D163A) on human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs) and platelets. β-Toxin was cytotoxic to HAECs and inhibited the production of interleukin 8 (IL-8) from these cells by both SMase and biofilm ligase activities. β-Toxin altered HAEC surface expression of CD40 and vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1). HAECs treated with β-toxin displayed granular membrane morphology not seen in treatment with the SMase-deficient mutant. The altered morphology resulted in two possibly separable activities, cell rounding and redistribution of cell membranes into granules, which were not the result of endosome production from the Golgi apparatus or lysosomes. β-Toxin directly aggregated rabbit platelets via SMase activity. IMPORTANCE Each year there are up to 100,000 cases of infective endocarditis (IE) in the United States. S. aureus is the most common pathogen in patients with health care-associated IE and the leading cause of community-associated IE in the developed world. Multiple clonal group strains as defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, particularly USA200 and other clones encoding β-toxin, are highly associated with IE. Considering the strong association and established contribution of β-toxin in animal models of IE, determining how β-toxin directly affects human cell types, including endothelial cells and platelets, is important. In this study, we demonstrate that β-toxin functions to modulate endothelial cells and platelets by both toxin sphingomyelinase and biofilm ligase activities. Our data suggest that these activities modulate inflammation and increase infection severity.

Keywords

• beta-toxin
• biofilm ligase
• sphingomyelinase
• Staphylococcus aureus
• endothelial cells