Climate Change Stressors, Phosphate Limitation, and High Irradiation Interact to Increase <i>Alexandrium minutum</i> Toxicity and Modulate Encystment Rates

Abstract

The changes in the cell physiology (growth rate, cell size, and cell DNA content), photosynthetic efficiency, toxicity, and sexuality under variable light and nutrient (phosphates) conditions were evaluated in cultures of the dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum obtained from a red tide in the Ría de Vigo (NW Spain). The cells were grown at low (40 and 150 µE m−2 s−1), moderate (400 µE m−2 s−1), and high (800 µE m−2 s−1) light intensities in a medium with phosphate (P+) and without (P−). Cultures were acclimated to the irradiance conditions for one week, and the experiment was run for ~1 month. The cell size and DNA content were monitored via flow cytometry. Two different clonal strains were employed as a monoculture (in a P− or P+ medium) or, to foster sexuality and resting cyst formation, as a mixed culture (only in a P− medium). A. minutum growth was favored by increasing light intensities until 400 µE m−2 s−1. The DNA content analyses indicated the accumulation of S-phase cells at the highest light intensities (400 and 800 µE m−2 s−1) and therefore the negative effects on cell cycle progression. Only when the cells were grown in a P− medium did higher light intensities trigger dose-dependent, significantly higher toxicities in all the A. minutum cultures. This result suggests that the toxicity level is responsive to the combined effects of (high) light and (low) P stress. The cell size was not significantly affected by the light intensity or P conditions. The optimal light intensity for resting cyst formation was 150 µE m−2 s−1, with higher irradiances reducing the total encystment yield. Encystment was not observed at the lowest light intensity tested, indicative of the key role of low-level irradiance in gamete and/or zygote formation, in contrast to the stressor effect of excessive irradiance on planozygote formation and/or encystment.

Keywords

• <i>Alexandrium minutum</i>
• light
• paralytic shellfish poisoning
• harmful algal blooms
• pulse amplitude modulation
• encystment