Clarifying divergent hormone-behavior associations: the influence of neuroendocrine measures and early maternal depression on adolescent mental health trajectories

Abstract

Rationale/statement of the problem : Research has attempted to link atypical hormone patterns to behavior problems in adolescents with varying success. Exploring the interactive effects of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) hormones may help clarify findings. Given the lasting influence of early life stress on hormones and mental health, considering the effect maternal depression (MD) may lend additional clarification. Methods : Longitudinal data from 346 youth (171 males) were used to examine these associations. MD was measured during infancy and preschool with the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale. Morning levels of cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and testosterone were assessed at age 15 years. Internalizing and externalizing at 15, 16, 17, and 18 years were assessed with multi-informant report on the MacArthur Health and Behaviors Questionnaire using variables measuring number of symptoms (severity) and preponderance of one symptom type over the other (directionality). A two-level hierarchical linear model examined how neuroendocrine measures, early MD, and sex independently and jointly influenced mental health trajectories. Results : For severity, a two-way interaction (B = −0.095, t = −2.25, p < 0.05) revealed that adolescents with high cortisol-low DHEA had more mental health symptoms and a significant three-way interaction (B = −0.019, t = −2.05, p < 0.05) revealed that adolescents exposed to early MD with high cortisol-high DHEA also displayed more symptoms. A significant three-way interaction (B = −0.213, t = −2.01, p < 0.05) revealed that girls with high cortisol-low testosterone displayed elevated mental health symptoms and a significant four-way interaction (B = −0.080, t = −2.60, p = 0.01) revealed that girls exposed to early MD with low cortisol and high testosterone also displayed increased mental health symptoms. Directionality findings revealed altered hormone patterns predicted internalizing symptoms for girls but externalizing for boys. Conclusion : Results support the benefits of examining multiple hormones in the prediction of mental health problems and suggest additional hormone risk patterns are present in individuals exposed to early life MD.

Keywords

• cortisol
• testosterone
• DHEA
• early maternal depression
• mental health
• adolescence