Analysis of indoxyl sulfate in biological fluids with emphasis on sample preparation techniques: A comprehensive analytical review
Samira Shafiee,
Siavoush Dastmalchi,
Afshin Gharekhani,
Ali Shayanfar
Affiliations
Samira Shafiee
Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Biotechnology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
Siavoush Dastmalchi
Biotechnology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
Afshin Gharekhani
Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
Ali Shayanfar
Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Pharmaceutical Analysis Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Corresponding author. Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
The uremic toxin indoxyl sulfate (IS) has been related to the development of various medical conditions notably chronic kidney disease (CKD). Hence, quantification of this biomarker in biological fluids may be a diagnostic tool to evaluate renal system functionality. Numerous analytical methods including liquid chromatography, gas chromatography, spectroscopy, and electrochemical techniques have since been used to analyze IS in different biological fluids. The current review highlights the relevant studies that assessed IS with a special focus on sample preparation, which is essential to reduce or eliminate the effect of endogenous components from the matrix in bioanalysis.
