Profiling vivax malaria incidence, residual transmission, and risk factors using reactive case detection in low transmission settings of Ethiopia

Abstract

Abstract Background Identification of local Plasmodium vivax transmission foci and its hidden reservoirs are crucial to eliminating residual vivax malaria transmission. This study assessed whether reactive case detection (RCD) could better identify P. vivax cases and infection incidences in Arjo-Didessa, Southwestern Ethiopia. Methods A RCD survey was conducted from November 2019 to October 2021 in Arjo-Didessa and the surrounding vicinity in southwestern Ethiopia. RCD was performed at 0, 30, and 60 days following reports of P. vivax infections by health facilities to detect further cases and potential transmission networks. Household members of the index case and neighbours living within 200 m of the index household were screened for P. vivax. Households 200–500 m away are considered controls and were also screened for P. vivax. Plasmodium vivax was detected by microscopy, rapid diagnostic testing (RDT), and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Risk factors associated with vivax malaria were analysed using generalized estimating equations (GEE). Results A total of 3303 blood samples were collected from the index (n = 427), neighbouring (n = 1626), and control (n = 1240) household in the three rounds of follow-up visits for malaria infection, the overall positivity rate of P. vivax malaria was 1.6% (95% CI 1.2–2.2%), 1.9% (95% CI 1.5–2.4), and 3.9% (95% CI 3.2–4.6%) by microscopy, RDT, and qPCR, respectively. Microscopy and RDT detected 41.5% (54 of 130) and 49.1% (64 of 130) of the qPCR-confirmed P. vivax cases, respectively. Of qPCR-positive samples, 77.7% of the total P. vivax infections circulated in the index and neighbouring households, while control households accounted for 23.3% of the infections. Of the P. vivax infections detected 81.0% (95% CI 72.9–87.1%) were asymptomatic. In this study, P. vivax infection incidence was higher in index case households (53.8 cases per 1000 person-months) and (44.0 cases per 1000 person-months) in neighbouring households compared to the control households (25.1 cases per 1000 person-months) with statistical difference (p = 0.02). In index case households, children < 5 years and school-age children were at higher risk of P. vivax infection (AOR: 6.3, 95% CI: 2.24–18.02, p = 0.001 and AOR: 2.7, 95% CI: 1.10–6.64, p = 0.029). Conclusions This study found clustering of asymptomatic and sub-microscopic P. vivax infections in the index case household and their neighbours using RCD and molecular methods. Children under 5 years and of school age were more likely to have P. vivax infection in index households. Thus, tailored RCD approaches and targeted interventions for interrupting residual P. vivax transmission networks are needed to eliminate P. vivax malaria in low transmission settings.

Keywords

• Vivax malaria
• Residual malaria transmission
• Clustering
• Reactive case detection
• Ethiopia