Neurodegenerative Microbially-Shaped Diseases: Oxidative Stress Meets Neuroinflammation

Abstract

Inflammation and oxidative stress characterize a number of chronic conditions including neurodegenerative diseases and aging. Inflammation is a key component of the innate immune response in Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease of which oxidative stress is an important hallmark. Immune dysregulation and mitochondrial dysfunction with concomitant reactive oxygen species accumulation have also been implicated in both diseases, both systemically and within the Central Nervous System. Mitochondria are a centrally positioned signalling hub for inflammatory responses and inflammatory cells can release reactive species at the site of inflammation often leading to exaggerated oxidative stress. A growing body of evidence suggests that disruption of normal gut microbiota composition may induce increased permeability of the gut barrier leading to chronic systemic inflammation, which may, in turn, impair the blood–brain barrier function and promote neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. The gastrointestinal tract is constantly exposed to myriad exogenous substances and microbial pathogens, which are abundant sources of reactive oxygen species, oxidative damage and pro-inflammatory events. Several studies have demonstrated that microbial infections may also affect the balance in gut microbiota composition (involving oxidant and inflammatory processes by the host and indigenous microbiota) and influence downstream Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease pathogenesis, in which blood–brain barrier damage ultimately occurs. Therefore, the oxidant/inflammatory insults triggered by a disrupted gut microbiota and chronic dysbiosis often lead to compromised gut barrier function, allowing inflammation to “escape” as well as uncontrolled immune responses that may ultimately disrupt mitochondrial function upwards the brain. Future therapeutic strategies should be designed to “restrain” gut inflammation, a goal that could ideally be attained by microbiota modulation strategies, in alternative to classic anti-inflammatory agents with unpredictable effects on the microbiota architecture itself.

Keywords

• Alzheimer’s disease
• Parkinson’s disease
• inflammation
• oxidative stress
• microbiome
• gut–brain axis