Individuals with type 2 diabetes (T2D) show signs of low-grade inflammation, which is related to the development of insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction. However, the underlying triggers remain unknown. The gut microbiota is a plausible source as it comprises pro-inflammatory bacteria, bacterial metabolites and viruses, including (bacterio)phages. These prokaryotic viruses have been shown to mediate inflammatory responses in gastrointestinal disease. Given the differences in phage populations in healthy individuals versus those with cardiometabolic diseases such as T2D, we here questioned whether phages from T2D individuals would have increased immunogenic potential. To address this, we isolated intestinal phages from a fresh stool sample of healthy controls and individuals with newly diagnosed, treatment-naive T2D. Phages were purified using cesium chloride ultracentrifugation and incubated with healthy donor dendritic cells (DCs) and autologous T cells. Donors with T2D had slightly higher free viral particle numbers compared to healthy controls (p = .1972), which has been previously associated with disease states. Further, phages from T2D induced a higher inflammatory response in DCs and T cells than phages from HC. For example, the expression of the co-stimulatory molecule CD86 on DCs (p < .001) and interferon-y secretion from T cells (p < .01) were increased when comparing the two groups. These results suggest that phages might play a role in low-grade inflammation in T2D individuals.
