Chronological and Archaeometric Evaluation of Bricks from Archaeological Sites of Upper Assam, Northeast India: Estimation of the Firing Temperature and Civilization History

Abstract

This study aimed to uncover the chronology and production technologies of ancient bricks unearthed from various locations in Upper Assam, Northeast India. To achieve this goal, complementary spectroscopic techniques such as Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) coupled with Energy Dispersive Spectrometer (EDS), as well as Thermoluminescence (TL) and Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL/IRSL) dating, were applied. FTIR and XRD analyses revealed the presence of quartz, feldspar (microcline, orthoclase, albite), kaolinite, chlorite, cerussite, palygorskite, magnetite, hematite, and organic carbon. The mineralogical composition indicates two distinct groups with firing temperatures below 650 °C and above ~800 °C. These two groups could be the first indication of the presence of two civilizations or at least two different production technologies involving different firing temperatures and kiln atmospheric conditions. Further, the SEM-EDS study suggests that both calcareous and non-calcareous clays were used in brick making, which have low and high refractory properties, respectively. The internal morphology of the samples shows the existence of micropores and microfractures, indicating the influence of higher-temperature firing. Absolute dating techniques associate the two brick groups with different age ranges: a firing temperature above ~800 °C indicates a superior technology corresponding to a production period between the 7th and 10th centuries CE. In contrast, a temperature below 650 °C indicates a technologically less advanced group of people, with the age group dated between the 11th and 14th centuries CE.

Keywords

• firing temperature
• XRD-FTIR
• SEM-EDS
• archaeometry
• ancient bricks
• TL/OSL dating