Automated vehicles will soon be integrated into our current traffic system. This development will lead to a novel mixed-traffic environment where connected and automated vehicles (CAVs) will have to interact with other road users (ORU). To enable this interaction, external human–machine interfaces (eHMIs) have been shown to have major benefits regarding the trust and acceptance of CAVs in multiple studies. However, a harmonization of eHMI signals seems to be necessary since the developed signals are extremely varied and sometimes even contradict each other. Therefore, the present paper proposes guidelines for designing eHMI signals, taking into account important factors such as how and in which situations a CAV needs to communicate with ORU. The authors propose 17 heuristics, the so-called eHMI-principles, as requirements for the safe and efficient use of eHMIs in a systematic and application-oriented manner.
