The gene environment aetiology of freezing and its relationship with internalizing symptoms during adolescence
Leslie K. Held,
Jacqueline M. Vink,
Frank Vitaro,
Mara Brendgen,
Ginette Dionne,
Lysandre Provost,
Michel Boivin,
Isabelle Ouellet-Morin,
Karin Roelofs
Affiliations
Leslie K. Held
Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour: Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging (DCCN). Kapitelweg 29, P.O. Box 9104, 6500 HE Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Thomas van Aquinostraat 4, 6525 GD Nijmegen, Netherlands; Corresponding author at: Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Henri Dunantlaan 2, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
Jacqueline M. Vink
Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Thomas van Aquinostraat 4, 6525 GD Nijmegen, Netherlands
Frank Vitaro
School of Psychoeducation, University of Montreal, Pavillon Marie-Victorin 90, av. Vincent-d'Indy Outremont QC, H2V 2S9 Montreal, Canada
Mara Brendgen
Department of Psychology, University of Quebec at Montreal, Case postale 8888, succursale Centre-ville Montréal, H3C 3P8, Canada
Ginette Dionne
School of Psychology, Laval University, Université Laval, 2325, rue de l'Université Québec (Québec), G1V 0A6 Quebec city, Canada
Lysandre Provost
School of Psychology, Laval University, Université Laval, 2325, rue de l'Université Québec (Québec), G1V 0A6 Quebec city, Canada
Michel Boivin
School of Psychology, Laval University, Université Laval, 2325, rue de l'Université Québec (Québec), G1V 0A6 Quebec city, Canada
Isabelle Ouellet-Morin
School of Criminology, University of Montreal & Research Center of the Montreal Mental Health University Institute, Pavillon Lionel-Groulx C. P. 6128, succ. Centre-ville Montréal (Québec) H3C 3J7, Canada
Karin Roelofs
Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour: Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging (DCCN). Kapitelweg 29, P.O. Box 9104, 6500 HE Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Thomas van Aquinostraat 4, 6525 GD Nijmegen, Netherlands
Summary: Background: The freezing response is a universal response to threat, linked to attentive immobility and action preparation. It is relevant for acute stress coping in animals and humans, and subtle deviations in toddler freezing duration (absence of, or excessively long reactions) have been linked to higher risk for internalizing symptoms in adolescence. Yet, while individual freezing tendencies are relatively stable throughout life, little is known about their gene-environment aetiology. Methods: We investigated the heritability of toddler freezing in the Quebec Newborn Twin Study (QNTS; n=508 twins) by fitting behavioural genetic models to video-coded freezing responses during a robot confrontation. Furthermore, we examined the predictive associations between toddler freezing and internalizing symptoms (anxiety and depressive symptoms), as they unfold during adolescence (ages 12–19 years) using linear mixed-effects models. Findings: Freezing was found to be moderately heritable (45% of the variance accounted for by genetic factors). The remaining variance was explained by unique environmental factors, including measurement error. No significant contribution of shared environmental factors was noted. Additionally, shorter freezing was associated with more internalizing symptoms in adolescence at trend level, a pattern that was significant for depressive but not anxiety symptoms. Interpretation: Freezing is an adaptive coping mechanism in early childhood, which is partly driven by genetic factors. Crucially, the absence or shorter duration of these behaviours may signal vulnerability to depressive problems later in life. Funding: Canadian Institutes of Health Research and Research Fund of Quebec–Health and Society and Culture. Consolidator grant from the European Research Council (ERC_CoG-2017_772337).
