Interaction effects in the association between methadone maintenance therapy and experiences of racial discrimination in U.S. healthcare settings.

Abstract

BACKGROUND:Disparities in methadone maintenance therapy (MMT) outcomes have received limited attention, but there are important negative outcomes associated with MMT that warrant investigation. Racial discrimination is common in healthcare settings and affects opioid use disorder (OUD) treatment and comorbidities. However, race/ethnicity alone may not fully explain experiences of discrimination. MMT remains highly stigmatized and may compound the effect of race/ethnicity on discrimination in healthcare settings. We sought to quantify differential associations between MMT and experiences of racial discrimination between racial/ethnic groups in a U.S. national sample. METHODS:We used the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions-III (2012-2013) to identify a subset of individuals with a lifetime OUD who had ever used MMT (survey n = 766; weighted population n = 5,276,507). We used multivariable logistic regression to model past-year experience of racial discrimination in a healthcare setting. We included an interaction term between race/ethnicity and MMT status to identify the odds of discrimination (MMT vs. no MMT [referent]) within racial/ethnic groups. We used survey procedures with weights to account for the parent study's complex survey design. FINDINGS:Twenty-two percent of our sample experienced racial discrimination in a healthcare setting in the past year. Discrimination was more common among those who had ever used MMT (x2 = 10.00, p = 0.001) and racial/ethnic minorities (x2 = 23.15, p<0.001). The interaction effect was much stronger than the main effects of race/ethnicity and MMT status. MMT status (versus no MMT) was positively associated with discrimination among Blacks (aOR = 3.93, 95% CI = 3.87-3.98, p<0.001), Whites (aOR = 2.25, 95% CI = 2.23-2.27, p<0.001), and Latino/Latinas (aOR = 1.59, 95% CI = 1.55-1.62, p<0.001). Among American Indian/Alaska Natives (AI/AN), those who had used MMT had over thirty times the odds of racial discrimination, compared to their non-MMT counterparts (aOR = 32.78, 95% CI = 31.16-34.48, p<0.001). CONCLUSION:Race/ethnicity alone did not sufficiently account for racial discrimination in healthcare settings among those with a lifetime OUD. MMT status was strongly associated with racial discrimination among AI/AN. Our strong interaction effect is indicative of an additional barrier to health services utilization among AI/AN, which has important implications for OUD treatment outcomes and comorbidities. Health promotion programs aimed at increased adoption of MMT are promising, but should be considered in the context of racial/ethnic disparities, drug use and MMT stigma, and implicit biases in clinical settings.