Preservation of Dinoflagellate Cysts in Different Oxygen Regimes: Differences in Cyst Survival between Oxic and Anoxic Natural Environments

Abstract

This quantitative dinoflagellate cyst study reveals an enormous difference in survival rates in oxygenated versus anoxic sediments. Replicate samples of concentrated natural dinoflagellate cysts with the same initial species composition (1.4 × 104 resting cysts·cm−3 sediment, 61% filled with live-appearing contents) were placed in bags of 20 µm plankton screen. Replicate bags containing 10.0 cm−3 concentrated cyst samples were placed on the seafloor in different environments in Long Island Sound, USA (anoxic and oxygenated), as well as refrigerated in test tubes in the laboratory. Three sets of 15 bags were placed in each environment. Once every year for four consecutive years, three bags were recovered from each set, and the contents were analyzed by cyst counting and germination experiments. An enormous difference in preservation potential between samples in oxygenated versus anoxic environments was revealed. The number of dinoflagellate cysts decreased abruptly within the first year in the oxygen-rich environment; living cysts became very rare (only 5% remained) and also empty walls of cysts disappeared (20% of total cysts remained). In anoxic sediment samples, living cysts also decreased significantly with time, but less quickly. After 1 year, 35% of the living cysts in the anoxic environment and 70% of the living cysts refrigerated in test tubes remained intact. After 4 years, 21% of the cysts with contents in the anoxic environment remained, and 31% in test tubes. The empty cyst walls remained intact for a longer time under anoxic conditions, especially of species known to fossilize well. Germination experiments showed that cysts with live-appearing contents were likely alive, because species with identifiable live-appearing cysts were also identified as vegetative cells in corresponding slurry cultures. The cyst assemblage was dominated by Protoperidinaceae, Dipolopsalidaceae, and Gonyaulacaceae. Of special interest is the ichthyotoxic Margalefodinium polykrikoides, the bloom-forming Peridinium quinquecorne, which has an undescribed resting cyst, and a previously undescribed Krypoperidinium species. The results show greater preservation of dinoflagellate cysts in “dead-zone sea bottoms” and may also provide an answer to the question of the absence of cyst beds in an area despite observed sedimentation of dense blooms.

Keywords

• dinoflagellate
• resting cyst
• preservation
• hypoxia
• sediment