St Andrews Encyclopaedia of Theology (Aug 2024)
Sufism
Abstract
Sufism is concerned with a broad trend within Islamicate societies towards expressing how taṣawwuf, as a path of spiritual refinement, has impacted religious, social, and political modes of human endeavour. If we look at taṣawwuf more specifically, we can identify a vibrant discourse of thought and practice that purports to address a fundamental part of the religion of Islam, namely iḥsān (consummate spiritual practice). Sufis themselves see taṣawwuf as an aspect of the teachings of the Prophet Muḥammad, preserved and propagated by a community of believers from generation to generation. Others perceive taṣawwuf as the exploration of ethical considerations stemming from Islamic religious precepts, while yet others identity it as part of a debate within Islamicate societies around religious authority and the ideal religious leader. Regardless of which perspective on taṣawwuf is taken, it is a fact that taṣawwuf both developed early within Muslim societies and has fully integrated itself into the practice of Islam up to the present. Sufis developed complex social structures termed ṭarīqa (Sufi brotherhood) that, connecting the entirety of the Muslim world, often followed the path of trade routes. Sufis not only focused on spiritual concerns, but also entered into legal and theological debates within larger Islamic scholarly discourse. They fought wars of jihād and founded states and ruling dynasties. With the advent of modernity and the colonial conquest of Muslim majority lands, Sufis were at the forefront of defending their lands against European imperialism. In the post-colonial period, Sufis have faced challenges to their authority, both from political elites and Islamic modernists subscribing to Salafist ideology. Nevertheless, taṣawwuf continues to adapt and develop as a global phenomenon that has reached beyond Muslim majority lands, to serve the ethical, spiritual, and religious needs of all who seek solace in its teachings.
