The functional differentiation of brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) and its ethical implications

Abstract

Abstract The growth of research and applications of brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) has spurred extensive discussion about their ethical implications. However, most existing research has primarily examined ethical issues related to BCIs from a general perspective, with little attention paid to the specific functions of the technology. This has resulted in a mismatch between governance and ethical issues, due to the lack of differentiation between write-in and read-out BCIs. By providing detailed descriptions of the functions and technical approaches of both write-in and read-out BCIs, we argue that ethical governance of BCIs should follow the principle of precise governance and develop refined governance strategies for different functional types of BCIs.