Rapid Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of N/TiO₂/rGO Nanoparticles for the Photocatalytic Degradation of Pharmaceuticals

Abstract

Nanocomposites comprising nitrogen-doped TiO2 and reduced graphene oxide (N/TiO2/rGO), with different rGO loading qualities, were prepared by a cost-effective microwave-assisted synthesis method. The synthesized materials were broadly characterized by Raman spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS), electron microscopy (SEM-EDS), and nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherms. Anatase was the only crystalline phase observed for all synthesized materials. The rGO loading did not affect the morphological properties, but it positively influenced the photocatalytic activity of the nanocomposite materials, especially at low rGO loading. Photocatalysts were evaluated via the degradation of specific organic micropollutant (OMP) pharmaceuticals: ciprofloxacin (CIP), diclofenac (DCF), and salicylic acid (SA), under different radiation sources: ultraviolet A (UVA), solar light simulator (SLS), blue visible light (BVL) and cold visible light (CVL). CIP and SA were removed effectively via the synergy of adsorption and photocatalysis, while DCF degradation was achieved solely by photocatalysis. After implementing scavenger agents, photocatalytic degradation processes mainly depended on the specific pollutant type, while irradiation sources barely defined the photocatalytic mechanism. On the other hand, changes in irradiation intensity significantly influenced the photolysis process, while photocatalysis was slightly affected, indicating that irradiation spectra are more relevant than intensity.

Keywords

• microwave-assisted method
• photocatalysis
• N/TiO₂/rGO
• organic micropollutants
• UVA light
• simulated solar light