A Multiplex Noninvasive Salivary Antibody Assay for SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Its Application in a Population-Based Survey by Mail

Abstract

ABSTRACT Noninvasive salivary antibody immunoassays can enable low-cost epidemiological surveillance of infections. This study involved developing and validating a multiplex suspension immunoassay on the Luminex platform to measure immunoglobulin G (IgG) responses to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) nucleocapsid and spike (S) proteins, and the spike protein’s S1 and S2 subunits and receptor binding domain. Multiple versions of these recombinant proteins acquired from commercial and noncommercial sources were evaluated. Assay development and validation utilized saliva and serum samples from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases procured from commercial sources and negative controls from a prepandemic survey. Saliva was also collected in a demonstration survey by mail involving adult individuals in the United States who were diagnosed with SARS-CoV-2 infection 15 to 80 days prior to sample collection. The survey had an 83% valid sample return rate (192 samples from 38 states). Most COVID-19 cases (93%) reported mildly symptomatic or asymptomatic infections. The final salivary assay based on the best-performing spike and nucleocapsid proteins had a sensitivity of 87.1% (95% bootstrap confidence interval, 82.1 to 91.7%) and specificity of 98.5% (95.0 to 100%) using 227 and 285 saliva samples, respectively. The same assay had 95.9% (92.8 to 98.9%) sensitivity and 100% (98.4 to 100%) specificity in serum (174 and 285 serum samples, respectively). Salivary and serum antibody responses to spike and nucleocapsid proteins were strongly correlated in 22 paired samples (r = 0.88 and r = 0.80, respectively). Antibody responses peaked at approximately 50 days postonset; greater illness severity was associated with stronger responses. This study demonstrated that a salivary antibody assay can be used in large-scale population surveys by mail to better characterize public health impacts of COVID-19. IMPORTANCE Given the enormous impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, developing tools for population surveillance of infection is of paramount importance. This article describes the development of a multiplex immunoassay on a Luminex platform to measure salivary immunoglobulin G responses to the spike protein, its two subunits and receptor binding domain, and the nucleocapsid protein of SARS-CoV-2. The assay validation utilized serum and saliva samples from prepandemic controls and recent COVID-19 cases. A survey by mail targeting recent COVID-19 cases across the United States also demonstrated the utility of safe, at-home self-collection of saliva. By incorporating multiple SARS-CoV-2 proteins, this assay may differentiate responses to natural SARS-CoV-2 infections from responses to most vaccines. Application of this noninvasive immunoassay in COVID-19 surveillance can help provide estimates of cumulative incidence rates of symptomatic and asymptomatic infections in various communities and subpopulations, temporal patterns of antibody responses, and risk factors for infection.

Keywords

• COVID-19
• SARS-CoV-2
• immunoassays
• population survey
• saliva