PLoS Medicine (Apr 2021)

Efficacy of live attenuated and inactivated influenza vaccines among children in rural India: A 2-year, randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled trial.

  • Anand Krishnan,
  • Lalit Dar,
  • Siddhartha Saha,
  • Venkatesh Vinayak Narayan,
  • Rakesh Kumar,
  • Ramesh Kumar,
  • Ritvik Amarchand,
  • Shivram Dhakad,
  • Reshmi Chokker,
  • Avinash Choudekar,
  • Giridara Gopal,
  • Aashish Choudhary,
  • Varsha Potdar,
  • Mandeep Chadha,
  • Kathryn E Lafond,
  • Stephen Lindstrom,
  • Marc-Alain Widdowson,
  • Seema Jain

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003609
Journal volume & issue
Vol. 18, no. 4
p. e1003609

Abstract

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BackgroundInfluenza is a cause of febrile acute respiratory infection (FARI) in India; however, few influenza vaccine trials have been conducted in India. We assessed absolute and relative efficacy of live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) and inactivated influenza vaccine (IIV) among children aged 2 to 10 years in rural India through a randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled trial conducted over 2 years.Methods and findingsIn June 2015, children were randomly allocated to LAIV, IIV, intranasal placebo, or inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) in a 2:2:1:1 ratio. In June 2016, vaccination was repeated per original allocation. Overall, 3,041 children received LAIV (n = 1,015), IIV (n = 1,010), nasal placebo (n = 507), or IPV (n = 509). Mean age of children was 6.5 years with 20% aged 9 to 10 years. Through weekly home visits, nasal and throat swabs were collected from children with FARI and tested for influenza virus by polymerase chain reaction. The primary outcome was laboratory-confirmed influenza-associated FARI; vaccine efficacy (VE) was calculated using modified intention-to-treat (mITT) analysis by Cox proportional hazards model (PH) for each year. In Year 1, VE was 40.0% (95% confidence interval (CI) 25.2 to 51.9) for LAIV and 59.0% (95% CI 47.8 to 67.9) for IIV compared with controls; relative efficacy of LAIV compared with IIV was -46.2% (95% CI -88.9 to -13.1). In Year 2, VE was 51.9% (95% CI 42.0 to 60.1) for LAIV and 49.9% (95% CI 39.2 to 58.7) for IIV; relative efficacy of LAIV compared with IIV was 4.2% (95% CI -19.9 to 23.5). No serious adverse vaccine-attributable events were reported. Study limitations include differing dosage requirements for children between nasal and injectable vaccines (single dose of LAIV versus 2 doses of IIV) in Year 1 and the fact that immunogenicity studies were not conducted.ConclusionsIn this study, we found that LAIV and IIV vaccines were safe and moderately efficacious against influenza virus infection among Indian children.Trial registrationClinical Trials Registry of India CTRI/2015/06/005902.