Low-Dose Estrogens as Neuroendocrine Modulators in Functional Hypothalamic Amenorrhea (FHA): The Putative Triggering of the Positive Feedback Mechanism(s)

Abstract

Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea (FHA) is a non-organic reversible chronic endocrine disorder characterized by an impaired pulsatile secretion of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. This impaired secretion, triggered by psychosocial and metabolic stressors, leads to an abnormal pituitary production of gonadotropins. As LH and FSH release is defective, the ovarian function is steadily reduced, inducing a systemic hypoestrogenic condition characterized by amenorrhea, vaginal atrophy, mood changes and increased risk of osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease. Diagnosis of FHA is made excluding other possible causes for secondary amenorrhea, and it is based upon the findings of low serum gonadotropins and estradiol (E2) with evidence of precipitating factors (excessive exercise, low weight, stress). Treatments of women with FHA include weight gain through an appropriate diet and physical activity reduction, psychological support, and integrative approach up to estrogen replacement therapy. If no spontaneous ovarian function is restored, assisted reproductive technologies may be used when pregnancy is desired. Because subjects with FHA are hypoestrogenic, the use of low-dose estrogens has been proposed as a putative treatment to positively modulate the spontaneous restart of gonadotropin secretion, counteracting the blockade of the reproductive axis triggered by stress acting through the neuroendocrine pathways at the basis of positive feedback of estrogens. The mechanism through which low-dose estrogens acts is still unknown, but kisspeptin-secreting neurons may be involved.

Keywords

• functional hypothalamic amenorrhea
• opioids
• estriol
• estradiol
• positive feedback
• stress