Genomic and phenotypic studies among Clostridioides difficile isolates show a high prevalence of clade 2 and great diversity in clinical isolates from Mexican adults and children with healthcare-associated diarrhea

Abstract

ABSTRACT Clostridioides difficile (C. difficile) is widely distributed in the intestinal tract of humans, animals, and in the environment. It is the most common cause of diarrhea associated with the use of antimicrobials in humans and among the most common healthcare-associated infections worldwide. Its pathogenesis is mainly due to the production of toxin A (TcdA), toxin B (TcdB), and a binary toxin (CDT), whose genetic variants may be associated with disease severity. We studied genetic diversity in 39 C. difficile isolates from adults and children attended at two Mexican hospitals, using different gene and genome typing methods and investigated their association with in vitro expression of toxins. Whole-genome sequencing in 39 toxigenic C. difficile isolates were used for multilocus sequence typing, tcdA, and tcdB typing sequence type, and phylogenetic analysis. Strains were grown in broth media, and expression of toxin genes was measured by real-time PCR and cytotoxicity in cell-culture assays. Clustering of strains by genome-wide phylogeny matched clade classification, forming different subclusters within each clade. The toxin profile tcdA+/tcdB+/cdt+ and clade 2/ST1 were the most prevalent among isolates from children and adults. Isolates presented two TcdA and three TcdB subtypes, of which TcdA2 and TcdB2 were more prevalent. Prevalent clades and toxin subtypes in strains from children differed from those in adult strains. Toxin gene expression or cytotoxicity was not associated with genotyping or toxin subtypes. In conclusion, genomic and phenotypic analysis shows high diversity among C. difficile isolates from patients with healthcare-associated diarrhea.IMPORTANCEClostridioides difficile is a toxin-producing bacterial pathogen recognized as the most common cause of diarrhea acquired primarily in healthcare settings. This bacterial species is diverse; its global population has been divided into five different clades using multilocus sequence typing, and strains may express different toxin subtypes that may be related to the clades and, importantly, to the severity and progression of disease. Genotyping of children strains differed from adults suggesting toxins might present a reduced toxicity. We studied extensively cytotoxicity, expression of toxins, whole genome phylogeny, and toxin typing in clinical C. difficile isolates. Most isolates presented a tcdA+/ tcdB+/cdt+ pattern, with high diversity in cytotoxicity and clade 2/ST1 was the most prevalent. However, they all had the same TcdA2/TcdB2 toxin subtype. Advances in genomics and bioinformatics tools offer the opportunity to understand the virulence of C. difficile better and find markers for better clinical use

Keywords

• Clostridioides difficile
• toxin gene expression
• whole-genome sequence
• clade
• sequence type (ST)
• toxin subtype